Particle Application Note Database

Fertilizer comes in many forms depending on its composition and intended final use. These final forms can include dry powders, liquids, suspensions or emulsions.

Grass seed for lawns and for agriculture is a common product in every country. Seed size makes a difference, larger seed sizes typically mean a more robust grass plant. The use of seeding machines make uniform size and shape important.

The particle size of SS316 powder is important to final product uses like injection molding. Here the metal must not clog the injector, so a uniform size with no large particles is important, and the metal must melt evenly throughout the molding for the best end product, again a uniform size and shape is important.

The particle size of titanium powder is important to final product surface quality, quality and robustness of coatings and mechanical strength of products. It also allows for the monitoring for elimination of large sizes which can plug nozzels in additive manufacturing.

Flavor emulsions are concentrates used for food products. The flavor could be a natural product or a synthesized material, emulsified to make delivery easier. Analysis would require the concentrated emulsion to be diluted in to water. Additional surfactant may be required to stabilize the emulsion upon dilution.

Laser diffraction based particle size analyzers bring the same benefits to nutraceutical measurement that make the technique popular among the pharmaceutical industry: fast analysis time, excellent precision, sample handling systems for every application, and a wide measurement size range. We can readily observe the importance of particle characterization to the nutraceutical industry as this information impacts research and development concerns as well as quality control.

Bean paste is a milled bean product containing large sections of the seed coat along with varying sizes of ground cotyledons, the fleshy section of the bean. Particle size of these components has a direct effect on mouth feel, flavor, and consistency of the final product. To ensure a consistent product, a company should have some procedure to monitor and control size from batch to batch and facility to facility.

Iron oxides (Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) are magnetic black materials. The methicone treatment adds a degree of “slip” to the particles allowing for better color saturation although they still remain magnetic. The resulting black pigment is predominantly used in cosmetics manufacturing.

Flour is the product of milled grains. Typically the distribution is wide and the size varies depending on the desired final product. Flour particles have a tendency to swell when run wet. The solution is to use ethanol and a sequence program to automate the process as much as possible. When flours are run dry they will closely match wet data without the threat of the particles swelling.

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles, 30-150 nm in diameter, which have been determined to play a crucial role in extracellular signaling. They have been observed in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, meaning they are incredibly widely spread in nature. Exosomes bud off from their parent cells in a sealed package, taking the properties of their parent cell walls with them and encasing many intracellular components.

Laser diffraction is a popular method for particle characterization. Coupled with an image analysis unit, we can compare in real time the classical values of D10, 50, 90 and get information about the shape or dispersion state of our particles, thus proving the usefulness of this complementary technique.

A pigment obtains, for example, its maximum colour effect only in a narrow particle size range below 1 to 2 microns. Therefore, understanding particle size distribution of calcium carbonates becomes one of the foremost parameters to be examined. In this study, the particle size distribution of the two different grades of calcium carbonate was investigated using HORIBA Partica LA-960V2 Laser Scattering Particle Size Distribution Analyzer.

Graphene oxide is a nanocarbon material with a high aspect ratio and a high surface area with a thickness of about 1 nm and a sheet length of several to tens of microns.

Graphene oxide is a nanocarbon material with a high aspect ratio and a high surface area with a thickness of about 1 nm and a sheet length of several to tens of microns.

Gold nanorods are rod-shaped gold nanoparticles. Fig. 1 shows that gold nanorods have two surface plasmon bands in the directions of the short and long axes derived from their anisotropic shapes.

Carbon nanotubes (CNT) are attracting attention and being utilized as cutting-edge materials, including battery materials, due to their lightness, strength, and current density resistance. Various applications have been developed based on these characteristics.

A mixed sample of fourteen sizes of monodispersed PSL was used to evaluate the resolution and quantitative capability of the centrifugal sedimentation method.

A mixed sample of five sizes of monodispersed PSL was used to evaluate the resolution and quantitative capability of the centrifugal sedimentation method.

Certified National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) traceable polystyrene latex (PSL) size standards made by Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. (TFS) were used to evaluate the resolution of the centrifugal sedimentation method.

Silica particle size standards with National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) traceable certified mean diameters are suitable for a wide variety of particle measurement applications. This time, four types of monodispersed colloidal silica Sigma-AldrichTM (SA) were mixed to evaluate the resolution and quantitative capability of the centrifugal sedimentation method.

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) are needle-like materials with a width of about 5-20 nm and a length of about 100-250 nm defibrated using chemical treatment. It is important to understand the fiber size and dispersion state. It is necessary to have an analysis method that can quickly evaluate a wide ranges of particle size distribution for separated particles to agglomerates.

Nanocellulose is a fibrous material derived from wood and is used as composite materials, etc. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) are needle-like materials with a width of about 5-20 nm and a length of about 100-250 nm defibrated using chemical treatment.

Nanocellulose is a fibrous substance derived from wood and is attracting attention as a cutting-edge material. Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) manufactured by TEMPO oxidation are cellulose fibers that have added carboxy groups at high density.

Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) technology is used as an indispensable fundamental technology in the manufacturing process of ultra-large-scale semiconductor integrated circuits (ULSI).

A colloid is typically a two phase system consisting of a continuous phase (the dispersion medium) and dispersed phase (the particles or emulsion droplets). The particle size of the dispersed phase typically ranges from 1 nanometer to 1 micrometer.

A virus particle consists of several parts including the genetic material (DNA or RNA), a protein coat that protects these genes, and in some cases an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat when they are outside a cell. The size of viruses ranges from a few tens to a few hundreds of nm, which is equal to 1/100 to 1/1000 of the cell (a few to a few tens of μm in size) of any other common living organism.

Single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNT’s) have unique mechanical and electronic properties and therefore have attracted much interest. These nanotubes consist of rolled up single sheets of carbon atoms and due to the high aspect ratio and nature of the C-C bonds have unique properties. A number of techniques are necessary to obtain a complete picture of these complex materials.

Plastic is a type of material that is resistant to degradation and is practically indestructible. While plastic will break down into fragments and become nanoplastics via photo-oxidative mechanisms, plastic fundamentally remains the same throughout the process. The concern of water contamination from nanoplastics is, therefore, a study receiving close scrutiny from FDA and EPA alike.

Mineral-based sunscreens have gained popularity due to their excellent ability to scatter ultraviolet (UV) rays without causing photo-induced skin irritation from chemical-based sunscreens. Three over-the-counter zine oxide sunscreens were purchased and analyzed using Partica LA-960V2 Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analyzer. A standard 15 mL fraction cell accessory fitted with a magnetic stir bar was chosen for this experiment.

Paper is manufactured from wood fiber slurries, fillers, sizing agents, and coatings. To control certain optical and printing properties of paper, certain materials may be used during the manufacturing process. The particle size distribution of these materials directly affects properties such as gloss, brightness, opacity, color bleed, ink mileage, and more.

Several different compounds are used for melting snow. The most common is sodium chloride, also known as halite. Although it can damage roads and plants when misused, halite is inexpensive and useful under many conditions. Other materials include urea, potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, and calcium chloride.

Extracting useful minerals is an arduous and technically demanding process. First, any material on top of the deposit, known as overburden, must be removed or tunneled through. In the next step, the ore is blasted or cut and loaded and hauled to the mill for the secondary crushing and grinding which prepares the material for its intended use.

Hydraulic fracturing is used in the oil and gas industry to increase the flow of oil and/or gas from a well. Hydraulic pressure and then proppants (propping agents) are pumped into the oil well with fracturing fluid to hold the fissures open so that the natural gas or crude oil can flow up the well. The proppant size, shape, and mechanical strength influences the integrity of the newly created fractures, and therefore the flow of oil and gas out of the well.

The importance of particle size for power plants is found in their ability to meet environmental regulations while controlling capital expenditures and operating costs. This application page will show how investing in particle size analysis helps control operating costs and improve margins for power plants.

Particle size determination is an important parameter for any particulate system and it plays a vital role in the quality of diverse products manufactured by the food industry as well. In this study, particle size of wheat flour is measured by laser diffraction technology that has emerged as the most important and effective technique in the world of particle size analysis.

Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) technology is used as an essential fundamental technology in the manufacturing process of large-scale semiconductor integrated circuits (LSI). Colloidal silica are widely used as CMP slurries because of their clean spherical shape created by the sol-gel method, which causes less polishing damage. Since it is used for very precise polishing, its particle size is controlled with extremely high quality, and the particle size analyzer used for it must have high resolution and measurement repeatability.

Lithium ion battery (LiB) electrodes are fabricated by mixing active material particles and conductive agents in a dispersing solution, then coating the uniformly mixed slurry on a metal current collector and drying it. Since the dispersion of the active material and the conductive agent contributes to the performance of the battery, it is important to understand and control the mixing and kneading conditions.

In general particle size analyzers, particles of the same size are measured as the same size regardless of material, making it difficult to separate particles of different materials when they are mixed together. The centrifugal sedimentation particle size analyzer measures the sedimentation speed and converts it into a particle size value using the density information of the particles.

Nanocellulose is a fibrous material derived from wood that is applied to composite materials and is attracting attention as an advanced material. Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) are mechanically disintegrated materials with a diameter of 4~20nm, while cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are chemically disintegrated, needle-like materials with a diameter of 4~10nm. In order to actually utilize nanocellulose, it is important to understand the fiber diameter and dispersion state.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are thin, light, and flexible string-like materials with a minimum diameter of less than 1 nm that are composed entirely of carbon atoms. Because of their high electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and heat resistance, CNTs are being developed for a variety of applications as next-generation materials. On the other hand, CNTs easily aggregate, so it is essential to understand and control the state of aggregation in order to achieve the expected performance.

Process Analytical Technology, or “PAT” is the term given to analytical instruments developed to measure certain attributes of product within the manufacturing process, eliminating, or substantially minimizing the need for sampling for off-line analysis. This approach offers process measurements in-situ with instant access to data, which facilitates rapid decisions during product development and manufacture.

To an outsider to the pharmaceutical industry, the notion of D-values (e.g. D10, D50, D90) being a measure of particle size and distribution is a difficult concept to accept. Basic statistics and a common understanding of distributions might dictate that, provided one is allowed to assume that the particles are relatively spherical, the most logical means of quantifying the particle size of a sample would be to use the mean diameter and standard deviation values.

In this Application Note, we will focus on the importance of monitoring particle size and distribution range throughout two different processing technologies used to improve shelf-life and efficacy of CBD products.

Careful control of the particulates in whiskey is an important step to quality flavor and color. Inadequate monitoring of particle size impedes the final product stability, consistency, quality, and price. In this note, the particle science behind these determining factors will be thoroughly examined and explained.

The complexity of viral particles remains one of the biggest hurdles in the development process. In this note, the upstream process of analyzing viral preparations is addressed, as well as the use of multi-laser nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) as a cost and time efficient method to measure size, count virus particles, and correlate to infectious titer.

Polymers are large molecules made from repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. We often use the word ‘plastic’ to refer to polymeric materials, but polymers also include a wide range of natural materials such as proteins, DNA, cellulose, shellac and amber.

This note covers the history, theory and processes used for emulsion polymerization. It also examines the importance of measuring the concentration of latex nanoparticles produced by emulsion polymerization for a biotech application developed by the Gianneschi lab at UCSD. The Gianneschi case study includes data from the ViewSizer 3000.

In this note, we will briefly explore the history of powder metallurgy and then examine the importance of powder quality to the production of nanomaterials. Using a case study from the Vecchio lab at the University of California, San Diego, we will highlight the necessity of accurate particle sizing in the production of nanoparticles by spark erosion.

Nanobubbles are submicron gas-filled cavities in an aqueous medium. By virtue of formulation and manufacturing, they remain suspended in liquid for a long time. From mitigating the excess toxins in lakes to enhancing the health benefit of your everyday beverages, scrub-free cleaning to wellness and health applications, nanobubbles are set to disrupt industrial norms with their unique physiochemical characteristics.

Nanotechnology is not an industry, but rather a broad based field of study focused on materials and applications occurring at a very small scale. In general most people accept that nanotechnology deals with structures that are 100 nanometers (nm) or smaller and involves developing materials or devices within that size.

A feasibility study to measure low specific surface areas with the SA-9600 Series was performed using Certified Reference Materials BCR 169, 170 and 172 from the European Commission Joint Research Centre. The reference materials consist of two alpha-alumina powders and one quartz powder, with certified values 0.1, 1.05, 2.56 m2/gram, respectively.

Powder metallurgy is the study of transforming metal into powder and the consolidation of powder into the desired final product through methods such as sintering, compaction, blending, injection molding, or extrusion. Powder metallurgy is the essence of 3D additive manufacturing and it covers a broad spectrum of traditional applications.

Protein aggregation is an important concern when developing and manufacturing biotherapeutics since these subvisible aggregate particles have been associated with the adverse drug reactions. Protein aggregates may provoke adverse events through an unwanted immune response. And, regardless of mechanism of reaction, subvisible particle contamination has been a concern for manufacturers and regulators.

Size matters in vaccine delivery systems. Nanoparticles smaller than 200 nm generally present a greater immunogenic response than micro-particles larger than 1 micron. This rather simple statement is based on the common understanding that particles with sizes resembling the dimensions of viruses are treated like viruses by the body.

In this study, we demonstrate the ViewSizer 3000’s capabilities as a next generation NTA based analysis instrument in order to accurately and efficiently measure and characterize exosomes via particle size and concentration.

Soy milk is an increasingly important source of protein. As in cow’s milk, particle size is important for customer acceptance. HORIBA laser diffraction analyzers can be used to characterize soy milk. Measurements with the LA-960 particle size analyzer show significant differences in particle size distribution with soy milk price.

The study of protein aggregation encompasses a broad range of interactions and mechanisms. Many studies into this subject area investigate the aggregation of misfolded proteins, which is thought to be responsible for many degenerative diseases. Since aggregation typically leads to a physical change in protein size, particle size analysis has proven to be a useful experimental technique in this field.

The ViewSizer 3000 enables scientists to visualize and quantify the kinetics of protein aggregation in real-time for biologic therapeutics under a variety of stress conditions including agitation, temperature and the addition of contaminants. The case study featured here validates these capabilities for agitation and temperature stress conditions with the 100 mg/mL mAb A.

Mayonnaise is one of the most popular condiments world-wide and is prepared in many different ways. As health conscious consumers begin to scrutinize the ingredients on nutrition labels, there is growing pressure on manufacturers to create a mayonnaise product with lower cholesterol, lower calories, and healthier oil content while maintaining the consistent taste and mouthfeel of regular mayonnaise.

This study focuses on the critical particle diameter of dry sugar granules as particle diameter is an indicator of: Flowability, Dissolution and mixing, and Powder uniformity.

Products used in ceramic and abrasive applications are invariably produced from powders. Particle size distribution has profound effects on processing and function of these products.

The particle size of piezoelectric ceramics plays a crucial role in calcination and sintering temperature, which affects the processing time, and, subsequently, the performance of the final pressed component. It is for this reason that particle size analysis is used at different stages of the manufacturing process.

Latex is an important application for dynamic light scattering. In addition, monodisperse latex standards are often used to evaluate instrument performance. Often, issues with the results are due to issues with the sample. This note discusses sample preparation.

In this study, the LA-960 laser diffraction particle size analyzer was used to perform particle size distribution measurements on various materials used in the creation of lithium ion batteries.

Particle size is intimately related to hiding power in pigments. Due to its speed and wide size measurement range, laser diffraction is an ideal tool for tracking the grinding process and therefore controlling the resulting pigment performance. Laser diffraction results rapidly tell the manufacturer when a product is at the right particle size or distribution width and, therefore, allows optimum use of manufacturing equipment.

Polyelectrolytes are polymer chains with an electrolyte group on every repeat unit. These polymers are charged when dissolved in a polar solvent due to dissociation of small counterions that leave behind a charged macro ion. In addition to synthetic polymers, the topic of this note, polyeletrolytes include biologically important molecules such as polypeptides and DNA.

The isoelectric point, IEP, of a colloidal system is determined automatically with the SZ-100Z and Autotitrator from HORIBA Instruments. Zeta potential data as a function of pH is collected while the author is drinking coffee and writing support documents.

Titanium dioxide is present in many aspects of everyday life, its inclusion in commonplace goods often surprising. TiO2's utility in sunscreen -- affecting SPF and opacity -- is better known than its presence as a whitener in skim milk. The particle size of titanium dioxide directly impacts its performance in numerous applications, necessitating the measurement and control of this important property.

The utility of many industrially produced materials, such as emulsions, is often determined by the particle size. Dynamic light scattering provides fast, accurate and repeatable nanoparticle size information and is, therefore, an important tool for the nanoparticle technologist. Laser diffraction can also be used to characterize these important materials.

Manipulating the surface charge of suspended particles significantly improves wastewater treatment efficiency. Lowering the magnitude of surface charge allows particles to aggregate. This is often achieved by adding inorganic coagulants and polymeric flocculants. Zeta potential measurements with the SZ-100 determine the effect of different coagulants and concentrations.

Suspended solids are a common impurity in wastewater from industrial and mining operations. In order to meet requirements for water clarity for reuse or discharge, the suspended solids are often allowed to settle to the bottom or float (cream) to the top of large tanks. The duration of these processes is a strong function of the particle size, e.g. larger particles settle/cream faster.

Using the SZ-100 Nanoparticle Analyzer, the concentration of additive needed to reduce the zeta potential of wastewater suspended solids to zero can be reliably evaluated and so the efficiency of different additives can be readily compared. Particulate aggregation is typically achieved through the use of additives: coagulants (inorganic) and flocculants (polymeric). In this note, the effect of coagulant choice and concentration on the treatment of suspended clays is analyzed.

Protein scientists typically discuss “protein size” or molecular weight, as opposed to using the phrase “particle size”, but particle size analyzers are often used in their studies. There is also interest in the surface charge or valence of proteins, so zeta potential is another measurement used by protein chemists.

Zeta potential is a key physical parameter that describes surface charge on proteins. Although there has been interest in measuring the zeta potential of proteins for many years, the measurements were often difficult due to a variety of reasons including the “cooking” of proteins on the cell electrodes when using light scattering techniques.

Colloidal silicas are typically aqueous suspensions in the range of 30 – 500 nm in diameter. They are usually stabilized electrostatically and have densities in the range of 2.1 to 2.3 g/cm3. Applications for colloidal silicas include fillers, binders, abrasives, catalysts, and absorbants.

The utility of silica nanoparticles is often determined by the particle size. Dynamic light scattering provides fast, accurate and repeatable nanoparticle size information and therefore is an important tool for the nanoparticle technologist. Here, two different size silica particles are characterized with the SZ-100 in order to demonstrate the accuracy and utility of the instrument.

Dynamic light scattering provides fast, accurate, and repeatable nanoparticle size information. Applications include metal and oxide powders, latexes, drug delivery vehicles, and dozens of other materials. The SZ-100 is a dynamic light scattering instrument that is ideal for these nanoparticle samples.

Nanoparticles used for drug delivery is an important research field combining the life sciences with nanotechnology. While the strict definition of a nanoparticle is between 1 – 100 nm, we can extend the upper size range in the context of this application up to approximately 500 nm. Laser diffraction provides the advantage of being able to measure larger particles.

Considerable research has been conducted exploring the use of nanoparticles composed of biopolymers as a drug delivery vehicle. Much of the particle size analysis in this field has been done using dynamic light scattering (DLS). However, certain materials will feature larger particles that are outside the upper size range of DLS, but within the capability of laser diffraction.

Zeta potential is an indicator of dispersion stability. The zeta potential of any dispersion is influenced by the surface chemistry. The surface chemistry can be changed by any number of means including a change in the pH, salt concentration, surfactant concentration, and other formulation options. It is, therefore, frequently desirable to determine how pH affects the zeta potential of a dispersion.

Zeta potential is the charge on a particle at the shear plane. This value of surface charge is useful for understanding and predicting interactions between particles in suspension. A large magnitude (either positive or negative), that is, over about 25 mV, zeta potential is generally considered an indication that the particle suspension will be electrostatically stabilized.

Nanoparticle gold (also known as colloidal gold) is a suspension of sub-micron gold particles typically dispersed in water. Gold nanoparticles are of great interest for researchers in many fields due to their unique physical and optical properties. These properties change with the particle size distribution, so size analysis is an important measurement requirement.

Static image analysis provides fast, accurate, and repeatable particle size and shape measurements of pharmaceutical API’s, metal and oxide powders, and other materials. The PSA300 is a static image analysis instrument that is ideal for particle samples that are difficult to disperse or particles suspended in slurries or pastes.

Many particle size measurements are made to track size reduction operations such as milling, mixing, homogenizing, etc. The choice of particle size analysis technique can be based on the size distribution of the input, output, or both. Laser diffraction is the most common analysis technique for monitoring size reduction operations due to its very broad dynamic range.

Ointments and creams used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industry may contain solid particles and/or emulsion droplets. Automated image analysis has the benefits of quickly measuring thousands of particles and reporting both particle size and shape distribution results. This study utilizes the PSA300 automated image analysis system to quantify the size and shape of various ointments and creams.

The behavior of an abrasive material is influenced by the hardness, size, and shape of the particles. A harder particle will be more aggressive in altering the surface of the work piece. Larger particles generate higher impact force removing the material surface quicker and producing a heavier texture. Particle shape also plays a role.

Quality beans ground to the ideal size produces a perfect cup of coffee. It sounds like a simple process, but there is a great deal that takes place before a single drop is brewed. This note focuses on how the size of the grind affects the flavor of the coffee and the reasons the LA-960 Laser Diffraction Analyzer offers undeniable advantages in measurement accuracy and speed over historical sieving techniques.

The particle size distribution of drilling fluid is an important physical parameter along with other properties such as density and rheology. Although particle size is a critical parameter, older techniques such as sieving and sedimentation have long been used. Laser diffraction is becoming more popular due to the increased amount of information generated by this analysis technique which is quick and easy to use.

An ink is a liquid containing various pigments and/or dyes used for coloring a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Particle size of the pigment particles can significantly affect the color strength, surface finish, and durability of the final product. Laser diffraction can now be used to measure these pigments due to the state-of-the-art enhancements in the LA-960.

The particle size distribution of active ingredients and excipients is an important physical characteristic of the materials used to create pharmaceutical products. The size, distribution and shape of the particles can affect bulk properties, product performance, processability, stability and appearance of the end product.

The most common application for static image analysis systems is currently the characterization of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Pharmaceutical laboratories around the world are investing in image analysis systems as a valuable tool for complete particle size and shape characterization of dosage forms including solid oral, aerosol, and transdermal.

Chemical mechanical polishing (or planarization) is the most popular technique for removing the surface irregularities of silicon wafers. Typical CMP slurries consist of a nano-sized abrasive dispersed in acidic or basic solution. The abrasive particles have a size distribution which directly affects critical metrics including rate of removal and wafer defects. Particle size analysis is therefore a key indicator of CMP slurry performance.

Particle size analysis is only one of several required analytical tests for R&D formulators. New product formulations can often cost thousands of dollars per gram to manufacture. Considering that many tests destroy the sample material, formulators greatly benefit from minimizing the amount of sample required.

Foods we love rely on flavorings (or flavorants) to enhance their taste. Flavorants can reduce the costs of food processing while allowing a healthier diet. For maximum impact, particle size is important. Chefs and food scientists look beyond the name of the flavor and consider how it behaves during cooking and manufacturing. Much of this depends on particle size.

Quality control is an essential part of the sugar production. Sugar particle size specifications affect product dissolution rate, flowability, dust generation, and directly affects applications such as the spread of cookie dough or compaction strength of a chewable tablet. Traditionally, sugar manufacturers have chosen to use sieving analysis due to its low initial cost and its seemingly simple operating procedure. In this study, the LA-960V2’s ability to rapidly analyze particle separation and the particle size of powdered sugar at its de-agglomerated state is demonstrated.

Nutraceuticals are the intersection of nutrition and pharmaceutical and is an umbrella term that can also include functional foods and dietary supplements. Nutraceutical researchers working to improve the bioavailability, biocompatibility, and stability of various formulations measure particle size, particle shape, and zeta potential.

Metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) are devices that deliver a specific quantity of drug to the lungs. The size and shape of the micronized drug greatly influence the deposition profile in the lungs of the patient. Although the compendial tests for MDIs are based on cascade impactors, microscopic analysis is recommended by regulatory guidance documents and delivers important information.

Dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are devices that deliver medications to the lungs to treat respiratory diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Microscopic analysis provides useful information on both particle size and shape distributions of the powder products. Automated image analysis now facilitates quantitative particle size and shape distribution data that can prove valuable to both formulators and quality control efforts.

Pharmaceutical aerosols including metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) and dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are devices that deliver a specific quantity of drug to the lungs. The particle size distribution and shape of the delivered dose is more critical for inhalation aerosols than for most other conventional drug products because these factors greatly influence the deposition profile in the lungs of the patient.

Virtually any metal can be made into a powder through processes including atomization, electrolysis, chemical reduction, and size comminution. The metal powder can then be used to fabricate parts from simple to complex shape. The technique and study of these processes is known as powder metallurgy, a field of study well acquainted with particle characterization. The size distribution and shape of the powder metal particles influences the physical properties of the parts created.

Many cosmetic products include particulate material or emulsions. Some examples of cosmetic products consisting of or including particulates include facial powders, moisturizers, and lipstick.

Measuring and controlling the particle size distribution of cement is important both in order to achieve the desired product performance and to control manufacturing costs. Historic techniques of sieve and air permeability are still in use, but laser diffraction is becoming a more popular method to determine the particle size distribution of cement.

Laser diffraction is one of the most widely used methods for particle size analysis of micron and submicron size powders and dispersions. It is quick and easy and provides very consistent, repeatable information. Since these instruments use scattered light intensity to determine particle size, knowledge of the optical properties, specifically the complex refractive index of the material being analyzed is required.

Particle size analysis plays a crucial role in the manufacture of electronic materials for dielectric applications. These materials include single-phase powders such as barium titanate as well as formulations that contain many different oxide phases. In all cases, the particle size distribution has a great impact on their processing and performance.

Products used in ceramic and abrasive applications are invariably produced from powders. Particle size distribution has profound effects on processing and function of these products. These materials include most oxides and minerals from aluminum oxide to zirconium oxide. Depending on the application, particle size can effect densification, transport and mechanical properties.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC’s) offer the potential to greatly reduce man’s dependence on coal and oil for the production of electricity. They are clean, quiet and efficient. At the heart of these devices lies a complex combination of polycrystalline ceramic materials, each having to meet a particular set of structural and electrochemical requirements. Engineers control the performance of each component through manipulation of chemical and physical properties of the starting powders.

Developing an appropriate method for measuring particle size distribution of powders dispersed in air using laser diffraction requires a structured approach. The basic goals for developing a dry method include: place a representative sample into the analyzer, disperse the sample using a pressure that breaks up agglomerates but not individual particles, choose appropriate system settings for measurement, and test for reproducibility.

Pharmaceutical companies are beginning to refer to the USP <429> test as a guideline when using laser diffraction for particle size analysis. This document provides useful background material and offers specific advice on testing reproducibility and verifying accuracy using polydisperse standards.

Developing an appropriate testing method for measuring particle size distribution in liquids using laser diffraction requires a structured approach. A number of parameters of the test method must be evaluated including sampling, solvent, refractive index, dispersion, system settings, and concentration. These parameters may have a significant effect on the reported results, so each must be carefully evaluated.

A broad collection of pigment, powder coatings, and ink products exist in particulate form in both the raw materials and finished products. The particle size distribution of these materials determines their appearance, quality, functionality and processability. These samples cover an extremely broad range of size distributions.

Particle size is a critical physical characteristic of pigments, affecting many performance factors including gloss and tinctorial strength. Laser diffraction is the most popular method of particle size analysis for the milling process, allowing close control and optimization of a number of final product performance criteria.

Soil and sediments scientists have long understood the importance of particle size distribution to their field. Practically every aspect of soil water flow, carbon and nitrogen content, acidity, aeration, and nutrient availability is related to particle size.

Particle size analysis of a geologic area can reveal critical information about the region’s formation, history and climate. Particle characterization is an important tool for studying changes in geology and climate over time, mode of formation, and current environmental effects related to pollution transport, erosion, and sediment transport.

Many food products exist in particulate form ranging from powders to emulsions, suspensions and pellets. The size distribution of the particulates can affect the taste, appearance, stability, processability, and functionality of the final product.

The chocolate production process today is a marriage between technology and craftsmanship. Generally, the presence of particles above 30 µm leads to poor mouth-feel. It is perceived as gritty. Meanwhile, particles below 20 µm feels silky and smooth. Below 30 µm, 2-3 µm of a particle size difference can be detected by the tongue as a different level of smoothness. Therefore, monitoring, standardizing and setting specifications for particle size testing is a critical and necessary measure for quality control across chocolate plants.

Asphalt emulsions are droplets of asphalt dispersed in water with the aid of an emulsifying agent. Particle size of the asphalt droplets is critical to stability and application performance. Asphalt emulsions are manufactured by a high-speed, high shear mechanical device (usually a colloid mill) that divides the asphalt into tiny droplets and disperses it in the water. Typical products have a size range from sub-micron up to ten microns, with an average particle size in the one to five micron range. Variation in settings, raw materials, and requirements of the final product will vary both the average size and distribution width.

Asphalt emulsions have made the manufacturing and storage of road construction materials simpler and less expensive than previous methods. Asphalt emulsions are droplets of asphalt dispersed in water with the aid of an emulsifying agent. The particle size of the asphalt droplets is critical to stability and application performance

Milk is an emulsion that is often homogenized to reduce the average particle size. That improves its consistency and extends its shelf life. The homogenization process is expensive, but careful control of the process can improve quality, and thus, reduce operating costs. That’s where particle characterization comes in.